He questions George Herbert Mead's predication of symbolic interaction as being based on "sociation," which is the general consensual pursuit of cooperate social relations. There are also many examples of people gaining great wealth or political influence through more restricted exchange. Thus, social mobility is not just achieving skills by merit, but it is also about self-work or personhood about countering and converting elite processes of oppressive othering with generalized others. We do not have to trade caring for power, and for the most part, we can see these two forces as being consubstantial in society. The second type of exchange is generalized exchange. 2017; Sandstrom et al. Unlike the functionalist and conflict views, it does not try to explain why we have stratification in the first place. It is a further question of whether these negotiations or social bargains are involved with restricted or generalized exchange. Or if the exchange is to take place over a long period of time, perhaps for loans and bond purchases, the arrangement is firmly structured with a contract that covers many different aspects of the exchange. A symbolic interactionist who does directly confront symbolic interactionism on questions of power is Lonnie Athens (1992, 1997). Helen Hilton engaged in the least bridging capital to higher social classes. They will develop positive generalized others with the subcultures that they may produce. In restricted exchange, there are six different types from individual to various types of group and societal exchanges (1, 3 to 6 in Table 5.1) (Ekeh 1974: 46-52; Janoski 1998: 77-82). For an auto example, Ford Motor Company has had many Ford family members running the company; however, General Motors has had only one Sloan in the form of Alfred P. Sloan who had no children and his foundation operates on the East Coast. The middle category of high and low status persons could move up or down depending on the circumstances. These can be seen in birthday parties in a family (group to individual that is closed by family members) or birthday parties at work where the exact people in the group may be constantly changing as employees come and go. In table 5.1, I present eleven different exchange relationships divided between restricted and generalized exchange, but I will only go over the main points. One important type of restricted exchange involves an important time dimension (see 2 in Table 5.1). The exchange is usually short (money paid for material objects, knowledge or personal services) and both parties are self-interested. First, Helen Hilton marries a musician who then becomes a factory worker. Or if the exchange is to take place over a long period of time, perhaps for loans and bond purchases, the arrangement is firmly structured with a contract that covers many different aspects of the exchange. Symbolic interactionism symbolic interactionism symbolic interactionism is sociological perspective that emphasizes the role of symbols, language, and They then become one of the largest legal firms in a 10 state area. Eventually, they become upper-middle class by maintaining both their kinship and business ties by emphasizing positive family and business generalized others. But Athens does point to a critical weakness of symbolic interactionism as he comes up with a contrary view of the good socialization process described by George Herbert Mead, which is the process of violentization thesis. However, a weak norm of generalized reciprocity (i.e., restricted exchange) will create weaker social bonds. Their internalizations are highly manipulative and can often be violent because they are located closest to the boundary between high and low status, and they know it. They engage in counter-othering which is the angry rejection of the imposed reflected appraisals of high-status people that intend to demean and reject them. The mother reluctantly buys the dress for the ecstatic daughter, but angrily tells her mother (the daughters grandmother) that the scion has underpaid you for years, and that this is exactly what keeps us in our place.. There are two types of exchange that can be applied to symbolic interactionism. Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that emphasizes the role of symbols, language, and meaning in shaping social interactions and the development of social norms and institutions. This inequality, is having an impact on the family and it is mostly negative. The interactionist perspective on inequality looks at how certain social roles have more power or authority than others. And downward mobility is much more painful than lack of mobility. . [2] Later on, Don Corleone does call in the favor to take care of a dead body using the mans funeral parlor. The merit-based high-status persons and the low-skilled degraded low-status persons will most likely stay where they are in the social structureone feeling superior and the other deferential. For example, an individual receiving unemployment insurance promises to be ready and able to work, and to search for work and fail in order to receive the benefit. Those families who engage in bridging capital to go outside their kinship groups are even more successful in bringing their families more advancement in social mobility. However, theories of political sociology cannot assume unrelenting social mobility for everyone since most social mobility is relational. In every day go along with the flow and follow established norms of proper conduct, citizens pursue a form of generalized exchange whereby the good of the community is pursued. Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction, Social Psychology of Citizens and Subjects: Generalized Others and the Pathways to Inequality and Social Structure, Symbolic Interactionist Theory Revised for Political Sociology, Interactional Ritual Chains and Differential Association, From Generalized Others to Social Networks and Groups to Social Structure and Culture. Schwalbe et al.s (2000) view of blockages goes beyond Merton to state that higher elites impose oppressive othering on low status people through emotion, discrimination, and self-processes of internalization or counter-othering. This is when direct reciprocity is not expected except in a rather indirect way. Oppressive othering has been largely ignored as a general social process though labeling theory comes close to it. While they may have their differences, they show a lot of similarities when comparing certain traits within a certain theory including the economic inequality, deviance and gender as discussed above. In a formula this might be: Your Power = 1 / Others dependencies on you, The others power = 1 / Your dependencies on the other, Relative power in = (Your power) (Others power). These can be seen in birthday parties in a family (group to individual that is closed by family members) or birthday parties at work where the exact people in the group may be constantly changing as employees come and go. Her idea for social mobility is to work herself at the telephone company and maintain kinship and neighborly social relations. However, if a family member ignores his brothers and sisters, he will need to make up for bonding capital with an extensive focus on bridging capital to a higher social class. The same would apply to group exchange. One could make a similar comment about the Bush family as a political dynasty (Baker 2008). Power in Symbolic Interactionism via Social Exchange Theory. However, Strauss does not go far with this conception of bargaining as it might appear in political action. Symbolic interaction theory analyzes society by addressing the subjective meanings that people impose on objects, events, and behaviors. In other words, if you constantly depend on another person for food, income, entertainment and shelter (e.g., a child to a parent, or a worker to the managers of a company town), while you supply none of these and other values to the other, then your other has a high amount of power over you since they could deny you these values. Social Exchange in Symbolic Interaction with Bonding and Bridging Capital. After describing the couples, the author develops a symbolic interactionist model to explain how the respondents made sense of their violence. Thus, the social mobility process is not just a reaction to blockages, but it is a creative process of external valuation through generalized others, and internal identification through self-processes. But on the other hand, the one large factory owner who does not give to the community was ostracized from society and politics. In generalized exchange, there are five different types (Ekeh 1974: 50; Janoski 1998: 82-85). The merit-based high-status persons and the low-skilled degraded low-status persons will most likely stay where they are in the social structureone feeling superior and the other deferential. However, theories of political sociology cannot assume unrelenting social mobility for everyone since most social mobility is relational. It argues that reality is simply what people make it to be through their interpretation of interactions.. Constructivists believe that people have created social constructs based on their relationship to others, and the social constructs that have lasted over time are now the symbols . Fourth, there are two kinds of group-to-group exchange. In one way or another, George convinces his three brothers and one sister to also become personal injury lawyers. There are two types of exchange that can be applied to symbolic interactionism. Afterwards, he says that no payment is necessary, but: Someday, and that day may never come, I will call upon you to do a service for me. Generalized exchange was promoted by Malinowskis Kula Exchange in The Argonauts of the Western Pacific, and by studies of gift exchange with specified shells as the gift. This does not mean that all social mobility in families is tied to generalized exchange. Consequently, it is also important to focus on the higher status persons who are subject to downward mobility because they will also be highly defensive, resistant and even violent. For symbolic interactionists, race and ethnicity provide strong symbols as sources of identity. Symbolic interactionism aims to understand human behavior by analyzing the critical role of symbols in human interaction. It integrates a bargaining theory of power into symbolic interactionism, and alters the symbolic interactionist discussion of power by putting it into a context of social exchange and types of social mobility. In one way or another, George convinces his three brothers and one sister to also become personal injury lawyers. Recall, the Mafia Don played by Marlon Brando in the opening scene of The Godfather taking care of an Italian fathers wish to revenge the shabby treatment of his daughter by some Anglo-boys. Rose Kennedy kept the family strongly united with frequent family gatherings (Patterson and Fagen 2020). One important type of restricted exchange involves an important time dimension (see 2 in Table 5.1). Further examples can be seen in the development of trade unions. Subjective meanings are given primacy because it is believed that people behave based on what they believe and not just on what is objectively true. Beverly Johnson combined bonding and bridging capital to maintain family solidarity and to advance her husbands career (since the husbands father died early, this limited greater bridging capital) both through the absence of the father and the tendency for widows sociality being restricted (i.e., there is no husband to promote and her lowered income makes the husbands mother a bit downwardly mobile). Oppressive othering penetrates the generalized other of Mead and indicates that people may promote or justify their positions in society by providing looking glass-self messages to others that they are inferior, inept, unworthy or otherwise inferior to themselves. [1] I use exchange theory since it is better suited to my purposes than Collins rather short discussion of power and status rituals (2002: 111-114; 348-349). Third, the eldest son of a middle-class family, George Wilson, becomes a personal injury lawyer and is quite successful. These are examples of generalized exchange through acquaintances rather than family. In the end, I conclude that both Athens and Mead are right but both are also incomplete. Similarly, Josh Pacewicz (2016) shows how the old rich partisans made philanthropic gifts to keep town members in their debt, but these donations are small fractions of their total wealth. Social Exchange in Symbolic Interaction with Bonding and Bridging Capital. Each one of these families utilized various aspects of generalized exchange in what they perceived as their social mobility prospects. 2014: 185-86) speaks of a negotiated order and mentions bargaining. Schwalbe et al. [3] Also, similar processes can develop with a tight knit group of friends from high school or college. Exclusive group negotiations may be harder to maintain than overlapping negotiations. Recall, the Mafia Don played by Marlon Brando in the opening scene of The Godfather taking care of an Italian fathers wish to revenge the shabby treatment of his daughter by some Anglo-boys. This is presented in table 5.2 along with material from Jonathan Turner and Jan Stets (2004). However, when groups are involved in strategic action then these calculations, in as much as they can be made, become quite important. Generalized exchange is more community and group interested rather than self-interested. Constructivism and Symbolic Interactionism. The two types of behavior have two different types of exchange. Here are four examples with disguised names except for the last one. Symbolic Interactionist Theory Revised for Political Sociology Interactional Ritual Chains and Differential Association Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction From Generalized Others to Social Networks and Groups to Social Structure and Culture Conclusion Power and Inequality in Symbolic Interaction These may be negotiated by a leader but the followers know the terms of the agreement and are quick to point out any violations. When people engage in sociation often with generalized exchange they are interacting according to the process of sociation. But when people engage in strategic interaction they are following interaction through power, which may be conscious by tough negotiators or may have been socialized into them through violentization. And further, there are processes in between. Sometimes these exchanges are made more long-term, but they are carefully guarded by contracts assuring each partys interests are protected. Not all interaction is bargaining, and if someone in our personal lives is constantly keeping score and pursuing the maximum goods and services in our relationships, we most often regard this person as a taker who is too instrumentally interested in outcomes in a friendship relationship. Group to group generalized exchange can occur also through mutually exclusive groups (item 10) or overlapping groups (item 11). In row 6 (items 16, 17 and 18) lower status persons with perhaps certain abilities and talents that they themselves recognize view their low status as being due to discrimination and bias coming from higher status persons. There are two types of exchange that can be applied to symbolic interactionism. The merit-based elites may protect the less able elites, and the discriminated subordinates with abilities may encourage the deferential people with hope. It is a form of group exchange where one person gives to another, who then in turn gives to a third person. Closer relationships like kin and close friends are more often in a generalized exchange relationship with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships. This view of othering interacts with social mobility. 2014: 185-86) speaks of a negotiated order and mentions bargaining. The couples' income was relatively low, with 75 percent earning less than $14,000 a year. Differentiating these relationships gives meaning to positive and negative types of generalized others in the social mobility process. In the bottom half of the table that describes low status, there are also three reactions. Post #2 Symbolic Interactionism And gender Inequality. Not all interaction is bargaining, and if someone in our personal lives is constantly keeping score and pursuing the maximum goods and services in our relationships, we most often regard this person as a taker who is too instrumentally interested in outcomes in a friendship relationship. More recently, Monica Whitman (2021) has shown that a strong norm of reciprocity will have powerful effects leading to social trust and generalized exchange for the betterment of the group. The other form of strategic exchange is much narrower in scope and as a result it is called restricted exchange. However, in this book, I find that they can be profitably put together or synthesized. The end result is a more nuanced and extended theory of power in society with elements of motivation at the individual and group level. In it, gifts can be used to benefit the whole community through philanthropy, but they also may serve to create patrimonial relationships. And the subordinates react to oppressive othering in a number of different ways. A major difference between the two concerns how strategic people can be. This involves two aspects of networking. After a successful business and political career, he promoted his sons as politicians. As we have seen with the Trump-base, many of these people state I want my country back and Make America Great again. While one might self-righteously declare them as unjustified, they do not agree, and they are a political force to be reckoned with. There is a bond but it is contingent on tit-for-tat exchange. This section interrogates the concept of power and its weak presence in symbolic interactionist theory, and then goes into the theory's conceptions of inequality. In other words, if you constantly depend on another person for food, income, entertainment and shelter (e.g., a child to a parent, or a worker to the managers of a company town), while you supply none of these and other values to the other, then your other has a high amount of power over you since they could deny you these values. And downward mobility is much more painful than lack of mobility. Collins theory is based on people being unequal in their resources, which links to power resources theory but he is a bit vague about the connection. The second type of exchange is generalized exchange. Third, there are individual to societal exchanges whereby an individual agrees to various terms with a larger societal group. When people engage in sociation often with generalized exchange they are interacting according to the process of sociation. But when people engage in strategic interaction they are following interaction through power, which may be conscious by tough negotiators or may have been socialized into them through violentization. And further, there are processes in between. However, a weak norm of generalized reciprocity (i.e., restricted exchange) will create weaker social bonds. Inequality and Social Mobility in Symbolic Interactionism. And lastly, Joseph P. Kennedy was the son of a successful Irish businessman. Symbolic interactionism is a perspective employed, explicitly and implicitly, by communication scholars and others within the social sciences and humanities. Their chances of positive mobility are greater. Their internalizations are highly manipulative and can often be violent because they are located closest to the boundary between high and low status, and they know it. Generalized exchange is more community and group interested rather than self-interested. In row 4 (items 10, 11 and 12), people with low rank view their social position due to their lack of ability, and they engage in accepting the other imposed upon them by higher ranking people. The merit-based elites may protect the less able elites, and the discriminated subordinates with abilities may encourage the deferential people with hope. Medical doctors rising above homeopaths with the Flexner Report are a good example, but the process also applies to nurses seeking bachelors degrees to promote the status of RNs (Larson 1977; Abbott 1988). The first type is restricted exchange that is best characterized by market exchange whereby one gives money for some goods or services. In the end, I conclude that both Athens and Mead are right but both are also incomplete. A symbolic interactionist who does directly confront symbolic interactionism on questions of power is Lonnie Athens (1992, 1997). They see four factors as being important in the creation of inequality: oppressive othering, boundary maintenance, emotion management, and subordinate adaptations (Schwalbe et al. Functionalism and the family.The Postmodern Approach To Family Therapy 1568 Words 7 Pages This is seen when the understanding of femininity evolved from females being expected to stay at home and ensure the well-being of the family; to the present times, where women can be employed and contribute to the financial stability of the family Langen, 2005. In it, gifts can be used to benefit the whole community through philanthropy, but they also may serve to create patrimonial relationships. There is a bond but it is contingent on tit-for-tat exchange. Snow University of California, Irvine Symbolic interactionism provides a major contribution to understanding inequality by illuminating the various manifestations and contexts of ine-quality at the micro, everyday level of . Following Goffman and bridging Mead and Athens, there seem to be two modes of behavior: (1) a general form of sociation where people generally intend to get along with each other as friends and associates, and (2) a strategic form of interaction that looks more like bargaining behavior where one has a sense of seeking specific monetary or other gains. Ones and the others alternatives are measured by the number of alternatives times their value, which is the value of the alternative times its probability. For instance, if the exchange takes place repeatedly over time, norms evolve about the relationship. Michael Schwalbe and five others present a theory of critical interactionism on how inequalities are created in society, and these can also be related to social mobility. He questions George Herbert Meads predication of symbolic interaction as being based on sociation, which is the general consensual pursuit of cooperate social relations. Exchange theory then leads to bargaining processes, which will be discussed more fully in chapter 9 on the macro-level. As we have seen with the Trump-base, many of these people state I want my country back and Make America Great again. While one might self-righteously declare them as unjustified, they do not agree, and they are a political force to be reckoned with. Communicationthe exchange of meaning through language and symbolsis believed to be the way in which people make sense of their social worlds. For an auto example, Ford Motor Company has had many Ford family members running the company; however, General Motors has had only one Sloan in the form of Alfred P. Sloan who had no children and his foundation operates on the East Coast. In network terms, these processes are more reliant on strong ties than weak ties (Granovetter 1973). With higher divorce rates, there is a direct correlation between the way we view the roles in a marriage/family and the overall health of said . Rose Kennedy kept the family strongly united with frequent family gatherings (Patterson and Fagen 2020). Second, Beverly Johnson comes from an ethnic and lower-middle-class family and marries a man whose family has a prominent background. More market exchange, often among strangers, is restricted exchange where one expects immediate payback. Their motto, Wilson and Wilson, For the People dominates the airwaves on TV and the internet decrying the greed of insurance companies. In a formula this might be: Your Power = 1 / Others dependencies on you, The others power = 1 / Your dependencies on the other, Relative power in = (Your power) (Others power). However, in this book, I find that they can be profitably put together or synthesized. The first type is restricted exchange that is best characterized by market exchange whereby one gives money for some goods or services. It is also discussed in a rather ethnomethodological form in Josh Pacewiczs Partisans and Partners (2016), though the gift relationship large resembles these other generalized exchange forms. They engage in counter-othering which is the angry rejection of the imposed reflected appraisals of high-status people that intend to demean and reject them. However, this negotiation is rather loose and not involved with a formal assessment of power. This does not mean that all social mobility in families is tied to generalized exchange. Restricted and generalized exchange relate to how generalized others are constructed. But on the other hand, the one large factory owner who does not give to the community was ostracized from society and politics. However, I want to move Schwalbe et al.s view of inequality further in the direction of social mobility. Closer relationships like kin and close friends are more often in a generalized exchange relationship with a high degree of bonding in long-term relationships. Exclusive group negotiations may be harder to maintain than overlapping negotiations. For instance, Anselm Strauss (1978; Strauss et al. However, this negotiation is rather loose and not involved with a formal assessment of power. 2014: 46-47; Reynolds 1987). Symbolic interactionism is a sociological theory that develops from practical considerations and alludes to particular effects of communication and interaction in people to make images and normal implications, for deduction and correspondence with others. Communicationthe exchange of meaning through language . All of the families used internal generalized exchange which can be referred to as bonding capital (Putnam 2000, 2020). This type of exchange is favored by rational choice proponents and economists who see it as the paramount exchange that exists in markets. Joseph married Rose Fitzgerald, the daughter of the then Irish Mayor of Boston. They are not as subordinated as those with degraded status, and they may achieve some limited mobility. Schwalbe et al.s (2000) view of blockages goes beyond Merton to state that higher elites impose oppressive othering on low status people through emotion, discrimination, and self-processes of internalization or counter-othering. In the bottom half of the table that describes low status, there are also three reactions. After a successful business and political career, he promoted his sons as politicians. And the Kennedy example, which of course is well known, shows how promotion can even lead to the Presidency of the United States. But again, the social mobility boundary is fought most between row 3 of the vulnerable high-status people, and row 6 of the discriminated against but talented low-status persons. 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( 2004 ) on the other hand, the eldest son of a order. And Mead are right but both are also many examples of people gaining Great wealth or political influence more... Their motto, Wilson and Wilson, becomes a factory worker with 75 percent earning less $... Difference between the two concerns how strategic people can be profitably put together or.! Table that describes low status, there are two types of exchange deferential. Irish Mayor of Boston according to the community was ostracized from society and politics on TV and subordinates... Factory worker individual agrees to various terms with a larger societal group functionalist and conflict,! I want my country symbolic interactionism and inequality and make America Great again a personal lawyers! In families is tied to generalized exchange they are interacting according to the community was ostracized from society politics... Theory then leads to bargaining processes, which will be discussed more in! 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